Ethical and mental health considerations for research into trade and trafficking of natural resources

Arguably, researching the trade and trafficking of natural resources, such as wildlife crime, environmental crime, trafficking of natural commodities, unregulated and unreported fishing, factory farming, human–wildlife conflict, to name a few examples, involves all four areas of threat. [...]research can be extremely emotionally taxing for both the researcher and research participants. [...]it offers the researcher an opportunity to think through potentially "risky”, dangerous, harmful, and ethically compromising fieldwork situations, while reflecting on their own positionality and protection of themselves, research participants, and data. [...]they are required to fill out risk assessments and complete specialized training for hostile environments. With increasing use of qualitative research methods within the wildlife trafficking research field, coupled with the growing importance of human–wildlife interactions exacerbated by the COVID-19 pandemic, this disparity in ethical regulations needs imminent addressing. [...]with the current emphasis on ‘decoloniality', an ethical review process could ensure that parachute social science is avoided, and equity and sustainable collaboration between stakeholders are foregrounded in the research.

Perceptions of COVID-19 origins and China's wildlife policy reforms.

Given the link between perceptions of zoonotic risk and support for regulations such as wildlife consumption bans, debates regarding the origins of COVID-19 are likely to have conservation implications. Specifically, alternative hypotheses that cast doubt on COVID-19's zoonotic origins could potentially lessen momentum for China's wildlife policy reforms and their associated conservation impacts. To better understand the impact of COVID-19 origin debates on China's wildlife policies, we conducted a 974-respondent survey across mainland China, supplemented by policy and media reviews. We examined perceptions of three facets of COVID-19 origins: geographic location, source (e.g., wildlife farm, wet market, etc.), and specific wildlife species as transmitters. Our findings reveal that 64.6 % of respondents believed COVID-19 originated in the United States or Europe, not in China. Further, compared to the baseline group of respondents who selected China as the origin country, respondents who selected the United States or Europe as the origin had a greater likelihood of selecting laboratories/research and imported frozen foods as likely sources, while these respondents had a lower likelihood of selecting wild animals in a wet market or natural causes as likely sources. Despite such varied beliefs regarding COVID-19 origins, support for wildlife policy reforms was strong: 89.5 % of respondents who previously consumed wildlife self-indicated reduced consumption after the pandemic and 70.5 % of respondents supported banning the trade of all wildlife species. Moreover, those respondents who selected wild animals in a wet market as a likely source of COVID-19 had a greater likelihood of supporting a trade ban on all wild-caught wildlife and all farmed wildlife. Our results indicate that, although investigation of COVID-19's origins is on-going and politicized, there is clear support for wildlife reforms in China that can promote conservation outcomes.

Perceptions of the COVID‐19 pandemic's impact on communities and wildlife trade: Preliminary qualitative analysis from hunters in Vietnam, Cambodia, and Laos

The COVID‐19 pandemic has accelerated efforts to engage critically with forest‐adjacent, rural, communities who rely on wildlife. We interviewed 109 hunters of wildlife across Vietnam, Cambodia, and Laos regarding the effect the COVID‐19 pandemic has had on them, as well as within their communities. We found that "negative economic impacts” was a prevalent theme due to loss of employment, rising prices, and restrictions on trade resulting from city‐wide lockdowns, factory closures, and border closures. In Vietnam, hunting was stated to have increased as young men returned to their villages;however, in Vietnam and Cambodia trade in wildlife was believed to have decreased due to the inability of middlemen traders to travel easily. Our results from Laos illustrated general economic cost, but otherwise no impact of COVID‐19 on hunting and trade in wildlife. Here, we show the complex impacts of a pandemic, with contextually specific conservation positives (such as decreased trade), and conservation negatives (such as increased hunting to supplement loss of employment). We illustrate the importance of establishing sustainable, non‐wildlife‐dependent livelihoods within rural communities, to mitigate hunting and the potential for disease transmission, and the value in engaging with hunters to understand locally and spatially specific trends in global conservation challenges. [ FROM AUTHOR]

Exotic animal cafés in Japan: A new fashion with potential implications for biodiversity, global health, and animal welfare

Wildlife trade is a multibillion-dollar industry and concerns not only the exploitation of animals for their body parts but is also largely fueled by the demand for exotic pets. We document, in Japan, a recent phenomenon closely related to the pet trade and rapidly spreading in Asia: the display of exotic animals in a café/bar context. We surveyed 142 exotic animal cafés (EACs) by visiting their website and/or social media accounts. We recorded every available exotic animal species, their status based on the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List of Threatened Species and Appendix according to the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). We compared the CITES Appendix-listed species imported in Japan during 1975–2019 to the species present in EACs. Most EACs opened in major cities between 2015 and 2017 under the label "owl café.” We recorded 3793 individuals belonging to 419 different species in 137 EACs active in 2019. The most numerous exotic animals were birds (62% – owls 40%) but reptiles (21%), mammals (15%) and to a lesser extent, amphibians (2%) were also found. A total of 403 individuals belonged to 52 threatened species. The majority (60%) of the species identified were CITES-listed (Appendix I: 53 individuals, 9 species;Appendix II:2482 individuals, 235 species and Appendix III:16 individuals, 6 species). While most species present in EACs are mainly imported as "captive bred” in Japan, we found 30 species that were mainly imported as "wild-caught,” "ranched” or "farmed.” The increase of importations of owl species is concomitant with the openings of EACs, reflecting the demand for owls in Japan. We argue that these EACs promoted through social media: (1) might have consequences for biodiversity as they encourage the purchase of exotic animals and represent a pool of potentially invasive species with their pathogens;(2) present a risk of pathogen transmission due to frequent close interactions with consumers;and (3) raise serious concerns about animal welfare.

Risk of Viral Infectious Diseases from Live Bats, Primates, Rodents and Carnivores for Sale in Indonesian Wildlife Markets.

Southeast Asia is considered a global hotspot of emerging zoonotic diseases. There, wildlife is commonly traded under poor sanitary conditions in open markets; these markets have been considered 'the perfect storm' for zoonotic disease transmission. We assessed the potential of wildlife trade in spreading viral diseases by quantifying the number of wild animals of four mammalian orders (Rodentia, Chiroptera, Carnivora and Primates) on sale in 14 Indonesian wildlife markets and identifying zoonotic viruses potentially hosted by these animals. We constructed a network analysis to visualize the animals that are traded alongside each other that may carry similar viruses. We recorded 6725 wild animals of at least 15 species on sale. Cities and markets with larger human population and number of stalls, respectively, offered more individuals for sale. Eight out of 15 animal taxa recorded are hosts of 17 zoonotic virus species, nine of which can infect more than one species as a host. The network analysis showed that long-tailed macaque has the greatest potential for spreading viral diseases, since it is simultaneously the most traded species, sold in 13/14 markets, and a potential host for nine viruses. It is traded alongside pig-tailed macaques in three markets, with which it shares six viruses in common (Cowpox, Dengue, Hepatitis E, Herpes B, Simian foamy, and Simian retrovirus type D). Short-nosed fruit bats and large flying foxes are potential hosts of Nipah virus and are also sold in large quantities in 10/14 markets. This study highlights the need for better surveillance and sanitary conditions to avoid the negative health impacts of unregulated wildlife markets.

Managing zoonotic diseases in the international wildlife trade through the One Health approach: a future role for CITES?*

The wildlife trade regime is largely governed by the framework established by the 1973 Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). The emergence of COVID-19 in late 2019 as a zoonotic disease, attributed to either bats or pangolins, might imply that the subsequent pandemic could have been prevented if wildlife trading under CITES was better regulated through provisions related to public health. Many species of bats and pangolins are indeed listed as endangered under Appendix I of CITES. But is CITES well equipped to deal with public health in the context of the wildlife trade? Given that the text of CITES does not primarily deal with health-related aspects of the wildlife trade, the treaty text may need to be amended. Even without significant amendments, however, the existing framework of CITES could conform to the One Health approach – integrating animal, human and environmental health – depending upon the willingness of States Parties to adopt national legislation that advances several health-related resolutions made under CITES and other relevant instruments that regulate human–wildlife interactions. As 60 per cent of the diseases in the world are zoonotic, and 13 zoonoses are responsible for close to 2.4 billion cases of sickness per year, the management of zoonotic diseases within the CITES framework could have important implications for the wildlife trade, international environmental law, and the future of global health. © 2022 The Author and 2022 Edward Elgar Publishing Ltd.

Conservation and cultural intersections within Hong Kong's snake soup industry

Snake soup continues to be an iconic tradition in Cantonese culture. Yet little is known about the relationship between snake soup consumption in Hong Kong, wild snake populations, and the communities depending on this tradition for their livelihoods. We applied an interdisciplinary approach including interviews with shopkeepers and genetic analyses of snake meat samples to determine the species consumed in Hong Kong, their source locations, and shopkeepers' views on the future of the industry. We genetically identified the common rat snake Ptyas mucosa, widely distributed throughout East and Southeast Asia, and the Javan spitting cobra Naja sputatrix, endemic to Indonesia, as the species most commonly consumed, which was consistent with interview responses. According to interviews, snakes had mostly been imported from mainland China in the past, but now tend to be sourced from Southeast Asia, particularly Indonesia. Interviews also revealed a pessimistic outlook on the continuation of this tradition because of various factors, including a lasting yet misinformed association of snakes with the 2002–2003 outbreak of severe acute respiratory syndrome. Given the COVID-19 pandemic and China's ensuing ban on the consumption of terrestrial wildlife, Hong Kong's snake soup industry will probably continue to rely on Southeast Asian sources to persist. Given the cultural and conservation issues surrounding this tradition, further research on the economic, ecological and social consequences of snake consumption is needed to examine the broader implications of snake soup and similar industries in the region.

THE IMPLEMENTATION GAP IN EMERGING DISEASE RISK MANAGEMENT IN THE WILDLIFE TRADE.

The wildlife trade has been characterized as one of the biggest risk factors in the emergence of new infectious diseases. In the shadow of COVID-19, there is growing political and scientific urgency to manage this risk. Existing studies and experiences make it clear that something must be done but are less clear on how to get it done. It is a quite different task to accumulate evidence on the presence of pathogens, their locations in the supply chain, and their spillover to new hosts than to identify effective ways to prevent and mitigate emerging disease under real-world conditions. This study sought peer-reviewed evidence on the effectiveness, acceptability, feasibility, and sustainability of risk reduction interventions for zoonotic and nonzoonotic disease emergence in the wildlife trade. An environmental scan triangulated information from a scoping review following a Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analysis extension for scoping review protocol, two narrative literature reviews, and key informant interviews of 26 international wildlife health experts. Existing literature has been inattentive to program implementation or evaluation studies. There was insufficient evidence to identify effective and sustainable risk management actions. Studies on the effects of social, epidemiologic, and ecologic context on intervention success was lacking, as was research using a complex systems perspective. The lack of systematic program evaluations or implementation studies leaves decision makers with insufficient evidence to select interventions likely to be acceptable, effective, and sustainable within and across the disparate context of the wildlife trade. This necessitates adaptive risk management and innovations in program implementation and evaluation to ensure evidence-based risk management.

Aligning conservation and public health goals to tackle unsustainable trade of mammals

Unsustainable wildlife trade is a major driver of biodiversity loss and an important public health threat. Yet, effective wildlife trade regulation is currently at odds with food security and economic incentives provided by this global, multibillion-dollar industry. Given such limitations, public health and conservation resources can be aligned to target species for which trade both increases risk of extinction and threatens public health. Here, we developed a simple conservation and health trade risk (CHT) index (range: 2-50) using a case study of traded mammals based on species' extinction and zoonotic risks, weighed by the extent of their trade. We applied this index to 1161 International Union for the Conservation of Nature-listed terrestrial mammals involved in the wildlife trade to identify 284 high-priority species that scored high in the CHT index (CHT >= 18). Species ranking high for conservation, public health, and trade risks include those belonging to the orders Primates, Cetartiodactyla (even-toed ungulates), Rodentia (rodents), Chiroptera (bats), and Carnivora (carnivores). Of the high-priority species, 33% (n = 95) are country-endemics and may be good candidates for trade regulations and enforcement at national scales. Our study provides a preliminary step in prioritizing species, taxonomic groups, and countries for focused wildlife trade regulation to meet both conservation and public health goals.

Novel chytrid pathogen variants and the global amphibian pet trade.

Global wildlife trade spreads emerging infectious diseases that threaten biodiversity. The amphibian chytrid pathogen Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd) has caused population declines and species extinctions worldwide except in Asia. Fire-bellied toads (Bombina orientalis), exported in large numbers from Asia, are tolerant of Bd and carry hypervirulent ancestral chytrid BdAsia-1 variants. We assayed the virulence of a new isolate of BdAsia-1 on the model Australasian frog host Litoria caerulea. Infected individuals (n = 15) all showed rapid disease progression culminating in death, whereas sham-inoculated individuals (n = 10) presented no clinical signs of disease and all survived (log rank test, χ2 = 15.6, df = 1, p < 0.0001). The virulence of the new isolate of BdAsia-1 is comparable to the one we assayed previously (χ2 = 0.0, df = 1, p = 0.91). Internationally traded wildlife, even when they appear healthy, can carry hypervirulent variants of pathogens. Once new pathogen variants escape into the environment, native species that have had no opportunity to evolve resistance to them may perish. Our study suggests that hypervirulent pathogens are being spread by the international pet trade. Notifiable wildlife diseases attributable to locally endemic pathogens often fail to generate conservation concern so are rarely subject to border surveillance or import controls. Because of the danger novel variants pose, national border control agencies need to implement disease screening and quarantine protocols to ensure the safety of their endemic fauna.

Variantes Patógenas Nuevas de Quitridios y el Mercado Mundial de Anfibios Mascota Resumen El mercado mundial de fauna dispersa enfermedades infecciosas emergentes que amenazan a la biodiversidad. El quitridio patógeno de anfibios Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd) ha causado declinaciones poblacionales y la extinción de especies en todo el mundo excepto Asia. El sapo Bombina orientalis, exportado en grandes cantidades desde Asia, es tolerante al Bd y carga genéticamente las variantes ancestrales hipervirulentas de quitridio BdAsia-1. Analizamos la virulencia de una nueva cepa de BdAsia-1 con el modelo de la rana australo-asiática hospedera Litoria caerulea. Todos los individuos infectados (n = 15) mostraron una progresión acelerada de la enfermedad que culminaba con la muerte, mientras que los individuos con inoculación simulada (n = 10) no presentaron señales clínicas de la enfermedad y todos sobrevivieron (prueba log de rango, χ2 = 15.6, df = 1, p < 0.0001). La virulencia de la nueva cepa de BdAsia-1 es comparable a la que analizamos previamente (χ2 = 0.0, df = 1, p = 0.91). La fauna comercializada internacionalmente, incluso cuando parece estar saludable, puede portar variantes hipervirulentas de los patógenos. Una vez que un patógeno nuevo se introduce al ambiente, pueden perecer las especies nativas que no han tenido la oportunidad de evolucionar la resistencia a estos patógenos. Nuestro estudio sugiere que los patógenos hipervirulentos se están dispersando mediante el mercado internacional de mascotas. Con frecuencia las enfermedades silvestres notificables que pueden atribuirse a los patógenos endémicos no generan interés para la conservación, así que rara vez están sujetas a la vigilancia fronteriza o el control de importación. Debido al riesgo que representan las variantes nuevas, las agencias nacionales de control fronterizo necesitan implementar evaluaciones patológicas y protocolos de cuarentena para asegurar la seguridad de su fauna endémica.

A scoping review of live wildlife trade in markets worldwide.

Wet markets sell fresh food and are a global phenomenon. They are important for food security in many regions worldwide but have come under scrutiny due to their potential role in the emergence of infectious diseases. The sale of live wildlife has been highlighted as a particular risk, and the World Health Organisation has called for the banning of live, wild-caught mammalian species in markets unless risk assessment and effective regulations are in place. Following PRISMA guidelines, we conducted a global scoping review of peer-reviewed information about the sale of live, terrestrial wildlife in markets that are likely to sell fresh food, and collated data about the characteristics of such markets, activities involving live wildlife, the species sold, their purpose, and animal, human, and environmental health risks that were identified. Of the 56 peer-reviewed records within scope, only 25% (n = 14) focussed on disease risks; the rest focused on the impact of wildlife sale on conservation. Although there were some global patterns (for example, the types of markets and purpose of sale of wildlife), there was wide diversity and huge epistemic uncertainty in all aspects associated with live, terrestrial wildlife sale in markets such that the feasibility of accurate assessment of the risk of emerging infectious disease associated with live wildlife trade in markets is currently limited. Given the value of both wet markets and wildlife trade and the need to support food affordability and accessibility, conservation, public health, and the social and economic aspects of livelihoods of often vulnerable people, there are major information gaps that need to be addressed to develop evidence-based policy in this environment. This review identifies these gaps and provides a foundation from which information for risk assessments can be collected.

Thailand's online reptile market decreases but shifts toward native species during COVID-19.

The recent COVID-19 pandemic presented the world with a crisis of incredible scale and made wildlife markets the focal point of authorities. Scientific literature on COVID-19 and wildlife trade overwhelmingly focused on the zoonotic risks of wildlife markets. As many physical marketplaces for wildlife were faced with closure or restrictions to curb the spread of COVID-19, alternative sale platforms were sought. I monitored social media platforms in Thailand during the pandemic and compared this with data obtained in 2016. I found a significant reduction of lizards and snakes offered for sale on social media, compared with before the pandemic. Although the quantity decreased, I found that the number of species almost doubled in snakes, of which unprotected native species increased by 245%. Transport restrictions would limit the mobility of harvesters and interrupts trade chains, and thus could explain the reduced number of snakes and lizards for sale. However, the increase in native species for sale shows that the impact of this international trade disruption could shift focus from international trade to what is locally available. Potentially having serious consequences for the conservation of local species and in line with previous studies documenting increased poaching rates and wildlife crime incidents.

Discussion of wildlife trade before and during the COVID-19 pandemic in professional opinion pieces and scientific articles.

Wildlife trade is a multi-billion-dollar sector that impacts a wide range of species, and thus is of significant research and conservation interest. Wildlife trade has also become a prominent topic in the public-facing media, where coverage has intensified following the outbreak of the global COVID-19 pandemic due to the potential connection between wildlife trade and the origin of the SARS Cov2 virus. Given the importance of the media in shaping public understanding and discourse of complex topics such as wildlife trade, this could impact the implementation of and public support for policy decisions. In this study, we followed a standardised protocol to extract wildlife trade-related discussion from 285 professional opinion pieces (NGO reports or articles in conservation-themed forums) and 107 scientific articles published in two time periods: "pre-COVID" (June 1-December 31, 2019) and "during-COVID" (January 1-May 31, 2020). We compared opinion pieces and scientific articles across the two time periods and to each other to investigate potential differences in the presentation of wildlife trade and associated speakers. We found a shift in the way that wildlife trade was discussed in professional opinion pieces between the periods, in that the discussion became less specific in terms of defining the legality and purpose of trade, and the animal groups involved in the "during-COVID" period. The generalised framing of wildlife trade in our dataset also coincided with an increased discussion of highly generalised management strategies, such as blanket bans on wildlife trade. We also found that publications included more quotes from researchers in the "during-COVID" period. In both professional opinion pieces and scientific articles, we found that quotations or research were often from speakers whose affiliation region was different to the geographic range of the trade they were speaking about. This highlights the importance of incorporating local knowledge and considering the diversity of speakers and interviewees in both research and the public-facing media about the wildlife trade.

We must better protect wildlife to prevent future pandemics

Speed read Wuhan investigation points to wildlife as likely source of COVID-19 Climate change and illegal trade are increasing risk of zoonotic disease transmission Wildlife protection, surveillance of zoonosis are key to early detection of ‘spillover events’ Understanding animal disease is essential if we want to prevent future pandemics, writes Keith Hamilton. [...]deforestation and climate change result in natural habitat loss and push animals, in their search for food or a new home, into human settlements. The World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE), the standard-setting organisation for animal health and welfare, champions this approach and is developing guidelines and standards for wildlife trade which support animal welfare and biodiversity conservation.

CITES as an International Instrument Against Pandemics that Threaten Human Life

The COVID-19 pandemic caused by the SARS-CoV-2 virus requires revisiting many global issues, One of these being is the wildlife trade and its adverse effects. Scientific studies have revealed the possibility that the SARS-CoV-2, a zoonotic virus, was transmitted to humans through an endangered wild species (pangolin). Despite pangolins being protected by strict rules under the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) they are still the subject of illegal trade. CITES is a comprehensive global convention regulating trade of endangered wildlife species. The convention does not contain any regulations for preventing diseases that threaten human life. However, CITES can indirectly play a role by regulating international trade. This article discusses the possible role CITES and its mechanisms have in preventing SARS-CoV-2 and similar zoonotic viruses. For this purpose, the study examines the proposals for revisions to CITES, including the integration of species shipment regulations and the addition of a new appendix involving animal health. Moreover, the study evaluates proposals to completely ban the trade of wildlife species and the possibility of having CITES intervene in domestic trade. Lastly, the article discusses proposals for recognizing illegal trade as a serious international crime. The main purpose of CITES is to regulate and protect the trade of endangered wild species. No matter what future arrangements are made, acting very meticulously will be necessary by taking into account the concerns of state parties, as this convention depends on states implementing the arrangements.

The welfare of wildlife: an interdisciplinary analysis of harm in the legal and illegal wildlife trades and possible ways forward.

Wildlife trade-both legal and illegal-is an activity that is currently the focus of global attention. Concerns over the loss of biodiversity, partly stemming from overexploitation, and the corona virus pandemic, likely originating from wildlife trade, are urgent matters. These concerns though centre on people. Only sometimes does the discussion focus on the wildlife traded and their welfare. In this article, we make the case as to why welfare is an important component of any discussion or policy about wildlife trade, not only for the interests of the wildlife, but also for the sake of humans. We detail the harm in the trade as well as the current welfare provisions, particularly in relation to the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), which guide global transport and trade. There are a number of ways that the current approach to wildlife welfare could be improved, and we propose ways forward in this regard.

Conservation and cultural intersections within Hong Kong's snake soup industry

Snake soup continues to be an iconic tradition in Cantonese culture. Yet little is known about the relationship between snake soup consumption in Hong Kong, wild snake populations, and the communities depending on this tradition for their livelihoods. We applied an interdisciplinary approach including interviews with shopkeepers and genetic analyses of snake meat samples to determine the species consumed in Hong Kong, their source locations, and shopkeepers' views on the future of the industry. We genetically identified the common rat snake Ptyas mucosa, widely distributed throughout East and Southeast Asia, and the Javan spitting cobra Naja sputatrix, endemic to Indonesia, as the species most commonly consumed, which was consistent with interview responses. According to interviews, snakes had mostly been imported from mainland China in the past, but now tend to be sourced from Southeast Asia, particularly Indonesia. Interviews also revealed a pessimistic outlook on the continuation of this tradition because of various factors, including a lasting yet misinformed association of snakes with the 2002-2003 outbreak of severe acute respiratory syndrome. Given the COVID-19 pandemic and China's ensuing ban on the consumption of terrestrial wildlife, Hong Kong's snake soup industry will probably continue to rely on Southeast Asian sources to persist. Given the cultural and conservation issues surrounding this tradition, further research on the economic, ecological and social consequences of snake consumption is needed to examine the broader implications of snake soup and similar industries in the region.